Acute mastoiditis
Updates to Article Attributes
Acute mastoiditis refers to a suppurative infection of the mastoid air cells. It is the most common complication of acute otitis media.
Terminology
In acute otitis media, an inflammatory middle ear effusion is present that can freely move into the mastoid air cells. Consequently, some authors comment that a mild mastoiditis is technically present in nearly all cases of acute otitis media 6. The mere presence of mastoid fluid on imaging, however, does not change the management of otherwise uncomplicated acute otitis media. Thus, many clinicians reserve the diagnosis for when there are clinical signs or symptoms of inflammation involving the mastoid. When mastoiditis and acute otitis media occur concurrently, sometimes the term acute"acute otomastoiditis"is used.
When there is clinical evidence of acute mastoiditis, the initial stage is referred to as acute"acute mastoiditis with periostitis", incipient"incipient mastoiditis", or mild"mild mastoiditis" 6,7. When mucoperiosteal involvement evolves into resorption of mastoid bony septa, this stage is referred to as coalescent mastoiditis.Coalescent Coalescent mastoiditisis a radiological diagnosis.
Epidemiology
Acute mastoiditis, like acute otitis media, is largely a disease of childhood.
Clinical presentation
Acute mastoiditis characteristically presents with postauricular tenderness, erythema, and swelling causing protrusion of the auricle. Common non-specific findings include otalgia and fever. Abscess Abscesses may present with fluctuance or a palpable mass.
Complications
subperiosteal abscessBezold abscessCitelli abscesslabyrinthitis-
petrous apicitis: extension of infection into a pneumatisedpetrous apex; ~30% of the population has pneumatised petrous apex2 -
intracranial extension-
epidural abscess, most commonly perisinus (adjacent to sigmoid sinus) meningitissubdural empyemacerebral abscessdural sinus occlusive disease (DSOD)
-
-
facial nervedysfunction -
thrombosis of mastoid emissary vein (Griesinger sign)
Pathology
Acute mastoiditis with periostitis is pathologically characterised by spread of infection through the mastoid emissary veins into the periosteum. Acute coalescent mastoiditis is characterised by infiltration and destruction of the bone, essentially osteomyelitis.
It is most frequently due to bacterial infections, with Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae accounting for 65-80% of cases.
H. influenzae, although less common, is the more aggressive agent, more frequently resulting in complications, especially meningitis.
Aetiology
Haemophilus influenzae: common and more aggressive than pneumococcus
Aspergillus: aggressive; seen in older patients; frequently associated with facial nerve dysfunction
tuberculous otomastoiditis: increasing frequency due to greater immunocompromised population
Radiographic features
CT is the initial investigation of choice. Post-contrast imaging is helpful in assessing for associated soft tissue or intracranial complications.
CT
partial-to-complete opacification of the mastoid air cells, which is non-specific but supportive of incipient mastoiditis in the appropriate clinical setting
erosion of mastoid air cell bony septa, which establishes the diagnosis of coalescent mastoiditis
erosion of the lateral wall of the mastoid, suggestive of subperiosteal abscess, or of the sigmoid plate, suggestive of epidural abscess
mass with surrounding fat stranding or rim-enhancing collection deep to the sternocleidomastoid muscle, suggestive of Bezold abscess, or within the digastric triangle, suggestive of Citelli abscess
erosion indicating osteomyelitis of the petrous apex (petrous apicitis, petrositis) or occipital bone (confusingly also known as Citelli abscess)
MRI
partial-to-complete opacification of the mastoid air cells +/- middle ear cleft
fluid signal intensity in the mastoid should not be interpreted as mastoiditis without other evidence, such as mucosal contrast enhancement and/or diffusion restriction 5
Signal characteristics
Typical findings in mastoiditis include 4,5:
T1:
:low signalT2:
:high signalDWI/ADC:
:diffusion restriction may be presentT1 C+(Gd): mucosal contrast enhancement is present in the majority
Treatment and prognosis
Usually, antibiotics are all that is required for treatment.
Complications
petrous apicitis: extension of infection into a pneumatised petrous apex; ~30% of the population has pneumatised petrous apex 2
-
intracranial extension
epidural abscess, most commonly perisinus (adjacent to sigmoid sinus)
facial nerve dysfunction
thrombosis of mastoid emissary vein (Griesinger sign)
See also
-<p><strong>Acute mastoiditis </strong>refers to a suppurative infection of the <a href="/articles/mastoid-air-cells">mastoid air cells</a>. It is the most common complication of acute <a href="/articles/otitis-media">otitis media</a>.</p><h4>Terminology</h4><p>In acute otitis media, an inflammatory middle ear effusion is present that can freely move into the mastoid air cells. Consequently, some authors comment that a mild mastoiditis is technically present in nearly all cases of acute otitis media <sup>6</sup>. The mere presence of mastoid fluid on imaging, however, does not change the management of otherwise uncomplicated acute otitis media. Thus, many clinicians reserve the diagnosis for when there are clinical signs or symptoms of inflammation involving the mastoid. When mastoiditis and acute otitis media occur concurrently, sometimes the term <strong>acute otomastoiditis </strong>is used.</p><p>When there is clinical evidence of acute mastoiditis, the initial stage is referred to as <strong>acute mastoiditis with periostitis,</strong> <strong>incipient mastoiditis</strong>, or <strong>mild mastoiditis</strong> <sup>6,7</sup>. When mucoperiosteal involvement evolves into resorption of mastoid bony septa, this stage is referred to as <a href="/articles/coalescent-mastoiditis">coalescent mastoiditis</a>. <strong>Coalescent mastoiditis </strong>is a radiological diagnosis.</p><h4>Epidemiology</h4><p>Acute mastoiditis, like acute otitis media, is largely a disease of childhood.</p><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>Acute mastoiditis characteristically presents with postauricular tenderness, erythema, and swelling causing protrusion of the auricle. Common non-specific findings include otalgia and <a href="/articles/pyrexia">fever</a>. Abscess may present with fluctuance or a palpable mass.</p><h5>Complications</h5><ul>-<li><a href="/articles/subperiosteal-abscess-of-the-mastoid">subperiosteal abscess</a></li>-<li><a href="/articles/bezold-abscess">Bezold abscess</a></li>-<li><a href="/articles/citelli-abscess">Citelli abscess</a></li>-<li><a href="/articles/labyrinthitis">labyrinthitis</a></li>-<li>-<a href="/articles/petrous-apicitis">petrous apicitis</a>: extension of infection into a pneumatised <a href="/articles/petrous-apex">petrous apex</a>; ~30% of the population has pneumatised petrous apex <sup>2</sup>-</li>-<li>intracranial extension<ul>-<li>-<a href="/articles/intracranial-epidural-abscess">epidural abscess</a>, most commonly perisinus (adjacent to sigmoid sinus)</li>-<li><a href="/articles/meningitis">meningitis</a></li>-<li><a href="/articles/subdural-empyema">subdural empyema</a></li>-<li><a href="/articles/brain-abscess-1">cerebral abscess</a></li>-<li><a href="/articles/dural-sinus-occlusive-disease-dsod">dural sinus occlusive disease (DSOD)</a></li>-</ul>-</li>-<li>-<a href="/articles/facial-nerve">facial nerve</a> dysfunction</li>-<li>thrombosis of mastoid emissary vein (<a href="/articles/griesinger-sign-mastoid">Griesinger sign</a>)</li>-</ul><h4>Pathology</h4><p>Acute mastoiditis with periostitis is pathologically characterised by spread of infection through the mastoid emissary veins into the periosteum. Acute coalescent mastoiditis is characterised by infiltration and destruction of the bone, essentially osteomyelitis.</p><p>It is most frequently due to bacterial infections, with <em><a href="/articles/streptococcus-pneumoniae">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a></em> and <em><a href="/articles/haemophilus-influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></em> accounting for 65-80% of cases. </p><p><em>H. influenzae,</em> although less common, is the more aggressive agent, more frequently resulting in complications, especially <a href="/articles/meningitis">meningitis</a>.</p><h5>Aetiology</h5><ul>-<li>-<em><a href="/articles/streptococcus-pneumoniae">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a></em>: most common</li>-<li>-<em><a href="/articles/haemophilus-influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></em>: common and more aggressive than pneumococcus</li>-<li>-<em><a href="/articles/aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></em>: aggressive; seen in older patients; frequently associated with <a href="/articles/facial-nerve">facial nerve</a> dysfunction</li>-<li>-<a href="/articles/tuberculous-otomastoiditis">tuberculous otomastoiditis</a>: increasing frequency due to greater immunocompromised population</li>- +<p><strong>Acute mastoiditis </strong>refers to a suppurative infection of the <a href="/articles/mastoid-air-cells">mastoid air cells</a>. It is the most common complication of acute <a href="/articles/otitis-media">otitis media</a>.</p><h4>Terminology</h4><p>In acute otitis media, an inflammatory middle ear effusion is present that can freely move into the mastoid air cells. Consequently, some authors comment that a mild mastoiditis is technically present in nearly all cases of acute otitis media <sup>6</sup>. The mere presence of mastoid fluid on imaging, however, does not change the management of otherwise uncomplicated acute otitis media. Thus, many clinicians reserve the diagnosis for when there are clinical signs or symptoms of inflammation involving the mastoid. When mastoiditis and acute otitis media occur concurrently, sometimes the term "acute otomastoiditis"<strong> </strong>is used.</p><p>When there is clinical evidence of acute mastoiditis, the initial stage is referred to as "acute mastoiditis with periostitis", "incipient mastoiditis", or "mild mastoiditis" <sup>6,7</sup>. When mucoperiosteal involvement evolves into resorption of mastoid bony septa, this stage is referred to as <a href="/articles/coalescent-mastoiditis">coalescent mastoiditis</a>. Coalescent mastoiditis<strong> </strong>is a radiological diagnosis.</p><h4>Epidemiology</h4><p>Acute mastoiditis, like acute otitis media, is largely a disease of childhood.</p><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>Acute mastoiditis characteristically presents with postauricular tenderness, erythema, and swelling causing protrusion of the auricle. Common non-specific findings include otalgia and <a href="/articles/pyrexia">fever</a>. Abscesses may present with fluctuance or a palpable mass.</p><h4>Pathology</h4><p>Acute mastoiditis with periostitis is pathologically characterised by spread of infection through the mastoid emissary veins into the periosteum. Acute coalescent mastoiditis is characterised by infiltration and destruction of the bone, essentially osteomyelitis.</p><p>It is most frequently due to bacterial infections, with <a href="/articles/streptococcus-pneumoniae"><em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em></a> and <a href="/articles/haemophilus-influenzae"><em>Haemophilus influenzae</em></a> accounting for 65-80% of cases. </p><p><em>H. influenzae,</em> although less common, is the more aggressive agent, more frequently resulting in complications, especially <a href="/articles/meningitis">meningitis</a>.</p><h5>Aetiology</h5><ul>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/streptococcus-pneumoniae"><em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em></a>: most common</p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/haemophilus-influenzae"><em>Haemophilus influenzae</em></a>: common and more aggressive than pneumococcus</p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/aspergillus"><em>Aspergillus</em></a>: aggressive; seen in older patients; frequently associated with <a href="/articles/facial-nerve">facial nerve</a> dysfunction</p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/tuberculous-otomastoiditis">tuberculous otomastoiditis</a>: increasing frequency due to greater immunocompromised population</p></li>
-<li>partial-to-complete opacification of the mastoid air cells, which is non-specific but supportive of incipient mastoiditis in the appropriate clinical setting</li>-<li>erosion of mastoid air cell bony septa, which establishes the diagnosis of coalescent mastoiditis</li>-<li>erosion of the lateral wall of the mastoid, suggestive of <a href="/articles/subperiosteal-abscess-of-the-mastoid">subperiosteal abscess</a>, or of the <a href="/articles/sigmoid-plate">sigmoid plate</a>, suggestive of epidural abscess</li>-<li>mass with surrounding fat stranding or rim-enhancing collection deep to the sternocleidomastoid muscle, suggestive of <a href="/articles/bezold-abscess">Bezold abscess</a>, or within the digastric triangle, suggestive of <a href="/articles/citelli-abscess">Citelli abscess</a>-</li>-<li>erosion indicating osteomyelitis of the petrous apex (petrous apicitis, petrositis) or occipital bone (confusingly also known as Citelli abscess)</li>-<li><a href="/articles/brain-abscess-1">cerebral abscess</a></li>-<li><a href="/articles/dural-venous-sinus-thrombosis">dural venous sinus thrombosis</a></li>- +<li><p>partial-to-complete opacification of the mastoid air cells, which is non-specific but supportive of incipient mastoiditis in the appropriate clinical setting</p></li>
- +<li><p>erosion of mastoid air cell bony septa, which establishes the diagnosis of coalescent mastoiditis</p></li>
- +<li><p>erosion of the lateral wall of the mastoid, suggestive of <a href="/articles/subperiosteal-abscess-of-the-mastoid">subperiosteal abscess</a>, or of the <a href="/articles/sigmoid-plate">sigmoid plate</a>, suggestive of epidural abscess</p></li>
- +<li><p>mass with surrounding fat stranding or rim-enhancing collection deep to the sternocleidomastoid muscle, suggestive of <a href="/articles/bezold-abscess">Bezold abscess</a>, or within the digastric triangle, suggestive of <a href="/articles/citelli-abscess">Citelli abscess</a></p></li>
- +<li><p>erosion indicating osteomyelitis of the petrous apex (petrous apicitis, petrositis) or occipital bone (confusingly also known as Citelli abscess)</p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/cerebral-abscess-1">cerebral abscess</a></p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/dural-venous-sinus-thrombosis">dural venous sinus thrombosis</a></p></li>
-<li>partial-to-complete opacification of the mastoid air cells +/- middle ear cleft</li>-<li>fluid signal intensity in the mastoid should not be interpreted as mastoiditis without other evidence, such as mucosal contrast enhancement and/or <a href="/articles/diffusion-restriction">diffusion restriction</a> <sup>5</sup>-</li>- +<li><p>partial-to-complete opacification of the mastoid air cells +/- middle ear cleft</p></li>
- +<li><p>fluid signal intensity in the mastoid should not be interpreted as mastoiditis without other evidence, such as mucosal contrast enhancement and/or <a href="/articles/diffusion-restriction">diffusion restriction</a> <sup>5</sup></p></li>
-<li>-<strong>T1</strong>: low signal</li>-<li>-<strong>T2</strong>: high signal</li>-<li>-<strong>DWI/ADC</strong>: diffusion restriction may be present</li>-<li>-<strong>T1 C+</strong>: mucosal contrast enhancement is present in the majority</li>-</ul><h4>Treatment and prognosis</h4><p>Usually, antibiotics are all that is required for treatment. </p><h4>See also</h4><ul><li><a href="/articles/otomastoiditis">otomastoiditis</a></li></ul>- +<li><p><strong>T1:</strong> low signal</p></li>
- +<li><p><strong>T2:</strong> high signal</p></li>
- +<li><p><strong>DWI/ADC:</strong> diffusion restriction may be present</p></li>
- +<li><p><strong>T1 C+</strong> <strong>(Gd):</strong> mucosal contrast enhancement is present in the majority</p></li>
- +</ul><h4>Treatment and prognosis</h4><p>Usually, antibiotics are all that is required for treatment. </p><h5>Complications</h5><ul>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/subperiosteal-abscess-of-the-mastoid">subperiosteal abscess</a></p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/bezold-abscess">Bezold abscess</a></p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/citelli-abscess">Citelli abscess</a></p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/labyrinthitis">labyrinthitis</a></p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/petrous-apicitis">petrous apicitis</a>: extension of infection into a pneumatised <a href="/articles/petrous-apex">petrous apex</a>; ~30% of the population has pneumatised petrous apex <sup>2</sup></p></li>
- +<li>
- +<p>intracranial extension</p>
- +<ul>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/intracranial-epidural-abscess">epidural abscess</a>, most commonly perisinus (adjacent to sigmoid sinus)</p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/meningitis">meningitis</a></p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/subdural-empyema">subdural empyema</a></p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/brain-abscess-1">cerebral abscess</a></p></li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/dural-sinus-occlusive-disease-dsod">dural sinus occlusive disease (DSOD)</a></p></li>
- +</ul>
- +</li>
- +<li><p><a href="/articles/facial-nerve">facial nerve</a> dysfunction</p></li>
- +<li><p>thrombosis of mastoid emissary vein (<a href="/articles/griesinger-sign-mastoid">Griesinger sign</a>)</p></li>
- +</ul><h4>See also</h4><ul><li><p><a href="/articles/otomastoiditis">otomastoiditis</a></p></li></ul>