Pulmonary embolism
Updates to Article Attributes
Pulmonary embolism (PE) occurs when blood-borne material lodges in one or more pulmonary arteries. Venous thromboembolism is the most frequent cause. Major occlusions can cause acute haemodynamic collapse and sudden death.
Epidemiology
The reported incidence of PE depends on diagnostic capability. Following the introduction of CT in the 1970s the reported incidence increased twofold and the mortality rate halved. Current figures in the USA indicate an annual rate of 1:1,000.
PE is a common medical emergency, with a reported incidencecause of between 60 and 300 cases per 100,000 population per year. The incidence of PE increases with age and is higherdeath in males compared to femaleshospital patients. Other riskRisk factors for PE include immobility, obesityspinal or lower limb surgery, cancer, hormonal therapy,older age and surgerycancer.
Clinical presentation
The clinical presentation of PE can vary depending on the size, location, and number of clots, as well as the patient's overall health status. Common symptoms of PE include chest pain, shortness of breath, cough, and rapid or irregular heartbeat. In some cases, PE may be asymptomatic, and the condition may only be detected through imaging studies performed for other reasons.
The patient may report a history of recent immobilisation or surgery, active malignancy, hormone usage, or a previous episode of thromboembolism. The physical exam may reveal suggestive features such as:
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clinical signs of deep venous thrombosis (DVT)
asymmetric pitting lower extremity oedema
prominent superficial collateral vessels
tenderness to palpation along the deep venous system
tachycardia
dyspnoea
pleuritic chest pain
haemoptysis
Clinical decision rules, in conjunction with physician gestalt and estimated pretest probability of disease, may serve as a supplement in risk stratification:
ECG
sinus tachycardia: the most common abnormality
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right heart strain pattern
incomplete or complete right bundle branch block
prominent R wave in lead V1
Left to right axis deviation
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T-wave inversion in the right precordial leads +/- the inferior leads is seen in up to 34% of patients and is associated with high pulmonary artery pressures 25
simultaneous T-wave inversion in lead III and V1 has been repeatedly shown to have strong sensitivity (90%), specificity (97%), positive predictive value (92%), negative predictive value (96%) and overall predictive accuracy of 95% 25,26
SIQIIITIII pattern: this refers to a deep S wave in lead I, Q wave and T wave inversion in lead III; this sign is seen as classical of PE but is, in fact, poor in terms of both sensitivity and specificity as a sign of PE
Pathology
Pathophysiology
PE occurs when a blood clot, usually originating from the deep veins of the legs, travels to the lungs and becomes lodged in the pulmonary artery. This results in decreased blood flow and oxygen supply to the affected lung and can lead to hypoxaemia, right ventricular strain, and, in severe cases, shock and death.
Gross anatomical pathology
Gross anatomical pathology in pulmonary emboli (PE) is characterised by a sudden blockage of the pulmonary arterial circulation, resulting in a lack of oxygen to the affected lung parenchyma. This obstruction causes ischaemia, which can lead to infarction of the affected lung tissue. The consequences of this increased elevated pulmonary arterial pressure include cor pulmonale and pulmonary hypertension (PHT), both of which can result from blockage and vasospasm. This obstruction can also lead to neurogenic release of thrombotic, A2, and serotonin, which can contribute to further thrombus formation.
Virchow's triad (endothelial injury, stasis, and hypercoagulable states) plays a crucial role in the development of PE, with a large number of DVTs causing PE, with only 10% or less originating in the pulmonary veins themselves. The ischaemia of the downstream parenchyma, as a result of the PE, can also cause a wide range of clinical manifestations and lead to significant morbidity and mortality.
Risk factors
The following are the risk factors for PE:
primary hypercoagulable states: including protein C deficiency, protein S deficiency, antithrombin III deficiency, lupus anticoagulant, factor V Leiden
recent surgery and prolonged bed rest/immobility: both increase the risk of DVT, which can progress to PE
malignancy: including multiple myeloma and HIV, which increase the risk of blood clots
medications: such as oral contraceptives and thalidomide, lenalidomide
pregnancy
previous history of DVT
presence of certain venous aneurysms, such as popliteal venous aneurysm
Links to the risk factures are as follows:
recent surgery
prolonged bed rest/immobility
malignancy: including multiple myeloma 23
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HIV 22:
2-10 x increased risk, cf. non-HIV matched controls
COVID-19 27
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medication
oral contraceptives
thalidomide, lenalidomide 31
pregnancy
known or previous DVT
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presence of certain venous aneurysms
e.g. popliteal venous aneurysm 15
Markers
D-dimer (ELISA) is commonly used as a screening test in patients with a low and moderate probability clinical assessment, in these patients:
normal D-dimer has almost 100% negative predictive value (virtually excludes PE): no further testing is required
raised D-dimer is seen with PE but has many other causes and is, therefore, non-specific: it indicates the need for further testing if pulmonary embolism is suspected 4
In patients with a high probability clinical assessment, a D-dimer test is not helpful because a negative D-dimer result does not exclude pulmonary embolism in more than 15%. Patients are treated with anticoagulants while awaiting the outcome of diagnostic tests 4.
Classification
PE can be classified based on its haemodynamic impact, temporal pattern, and location in the lung vessels. Haemodynamic classification categorises PE into three types: massive PE, submassive PE, and low-risk PE. Temporal pattern classification categorises PE into acute, subacute, and chronic PE. Vessel classification categorises PE into saddle, lobar, segmental, and subsegmental PE.
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haemodynamic
low-risk
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temporal pattern
acute
subacute
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vessel
lobar
segmental
subsegmental
Radiographic features
The diagnosis of PE can be challenging, and a variety of imaging modalities are used to diagnose and evaluate the extent of the disease and on whether it is acute or chronic. Overall, there is a predilection for the lower lobes.
Plain radiograph
Chest X-rays can provide information about the presence of pleural effusions and the overall lung architecture. However, chest X-rays have limited sensitivity and specificity in diagnosing PE.
The radiological features of Pulmonary Embolism (PE) may include:
reduced lung opacity in the affected area
increased lung markings in the peripheral lung fields
loss of lung markings in the central lung fields
Westermark's sign (a small perfusion defect surrounded by larger, hyperdense area)
pendants sign (a dependent peripheral filling defect)
Kaposi's sign (a peripheral triangular filling defect)
Hampton's hump (a rounded peripheral opacity)
wall sign (thickening of the pulmonary arterial wall) It is important to note that radiology is not the definitive method for diagnosing PE and must be interpreted in conjunction with clinical findings and other diagnostic tests.
The sensitivity and specificity of these signs vary, with the Westermark sign having the highest positive predictive value (38%) and the Fleischner sign being present in 20% of cases.
Links to these signs are detailed below:
Fleischner sign: enlarged pulmonary artery (20%)
Hampton hump: peripheral wedge of airspace opacity and implies lung infarction (20%)
Westermark sign: regional oligaemia and highest positive predictive value (10%)
pleural effusion (35%) - pleural effusions in pulmonary embolism
knuckle sign 11
Palla sign 17: enlarged right descending pulmonary artery
Chang sign 18: dilated right descending pulmonary artery with sudden cut-off
Sensitivity and specificity of chest x-ray signs 1:
Westermark sign has a sensitivity of 14% and a specificity of approximately 92%, with a positive predictive value of 38% and a negative predictive value of 76%
vascular redistribution has a sensitivity of about 10% and a specificity of 87%, with a positive predictive value of 21% and a negative predictive value of 74%
Hampton hump has a sensitivity of 22% and a specificity of 82%, with a positive predictive value of 29% and a negative predictive value of 76%
pleural effusion has a sensitivity of 36% and a specificity of 70%, with a positive predictive value of 28% and a negative predictive value of 76%
elevated diaphragm has a sensitivity of 20% and a specificity of 85%, with a positive predictive value of 30% and a negative predictive value of 76%
Ultrasound
Doppler ultrasound of the legs may be used to identify DVT, but is not typically used for diagnosis of PE.
CT
Acute pulmonary emboli
CT pulmonary angiography (CTPA) will show filling defects within the pulmonary vasculature with acute pulmonary emboli. When the artery is viewed in its axial plane the central filling defect from the thrombus is surrounded by a thin rim of contrast, which has been called the Polo Mint sign.
Emboli may be occlusive or non-occlusive, the latter is seen with a thin stream of contrast adjacent to the embolus. Typically the embolus makes an acute angle with the vessel, in contrast to chronic emboli. The affected vessel may also enlarge 9.
Acute pulmonary thromboemboli can rarely be detected on non-contrast chest CT as intraluminal hyperdensities 12.
The right heart strain and bowing of the intraventricular septum can also be seen in CT exams and are indicative of Pulmonary Embolism. These findings are important to identify as they suggest a significant blockage in the pulmonary circulation leading to increased pressure in the right ventricle and decreased blood flow to the lungs. These changes in the right heart can result in decreased cardiac output and hypotension, and therefore prompt management and treatment of the underlying cause is important.
Dual-energy CT holds much promise for the diagnosis and prognosis of PE. Z effective and iodine maps provide lung perfusion assessment. The use of low monoenergetic reconstructions (low monoE) allows 'iodine boosting' of the pulmonary arteries which are useful during suboptimal contrast opacification thereby preventing the need to repeat undiagnostic scans ref.
Chronic pulmonary emboli
In contrast to acute pulmonary embolism, chronic thromboemboli are often complete occlusions or non-occlusive filling defects in the periphery of the affected vessel which form obtuse angles with the vessel wall 9. The thrombus may be calcified.
Features noted with chronic pulmonary emboli include:
webs or bands, intimal irregularities 3
abrupt narrowing or complete obstruction of the pulmonary arteries 3
“pouching defects” which are defined as chronic thromboembolism organised in a concave shape that “points” toward the vessel lumen 3
Indirect signs include 7:
vascular calcification
bronchial or systemic collateralisation
Ultrasound/Echocardiography
Acute pulmonary emboli
Point-of-care ultrasonography is currently not recommended for a haemodynamically stable patient with suspected pulmonary embolism. In the presence of haemodynamic compromise, echocardiography may be of value to assess for the presence of severe right ventricular dysfunction;
if absent, another cardiopulmonary derangement is likely responsible
if unequivocally present, it can establish the need for emergent treatment
Echocardiographic features which may be suggestive include:
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right ventricular dysfunction
commonly dilated and hypocontractile
flattening or dyskinesis of the interventricular septum
Of note, transoesophageal echocardiography has a reported sensitivity of 80.5% and a specificity of 97.2% for ruling in acute pulmonary embolism after the detection of right ventricular overload on transthoracic echocardiography 24.
Chronic pulmonary emboli
Again not recommended as part of first-line work up.
Cumulative damage from repeated embolic insults is a common cause of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, which demonstrates a variable degree of the aforementioned signs, but with significantly higher right ventricular pressures, right ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction, and a higher degree of tricuspid regurgitation.
MRI
It is difficult to obtain technically adequate images for pulmonary embolism patients using MRI. Magnetic resonance pulmonary angiography (MRPA) should be considered only at centres that routinely perform it well and only for patients for whom standard tests are contraindicated. Technically-adequate magnetic resonance angiography has a sensitivity of 78% and a specificity of 99% 13.
Nuclear medicine
A ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) scan will show ventilation-perfusion mismatches. A high probability scan is defined as showing two or more unmatched segmental perfusion defects according to the PIOPED criteria.
Treatment and prognosis
Providing cardiopulmonary support is the initial treatment. Anticoagulation is provided in patients without risk of active bleeding. If the emboli are large or there is a large clot burden, thrombolysis is an option. In some cases, embolectomy or placement of vena cava filters is required.
The right ventricular failure due to pressure overload is considered the primary cause of death in severe PE 14.
Complications
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acute emboli
pulseless electrical activity (PEA) in the context of a large obstructing saddle embolus (see mnemonic for causes of PEA)
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acute or chronic emboli
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CT features suggestive of right ventricular dysfunction include 8:
abnormal position of the interventricular septum
inferior vena cava contrast reflux
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RVD (right ventricular diameter): LVD (left ventricular diameter) ratio >1 on reconstructed four-chamber views
RVD:LVD ratio >1 on standard axial views is not considered to be a good predictor of right ventricular dysfunction 8
termed submassive PE when right ventricular dysfunction demonstrated on imaging (CT or echo) but without clinical haemodynamic compromise 19
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-
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subacute-to-chronic emboli
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chronic emboli
Resolution over time
Several studies report around 80% emboli resolving at around 30 days 20,21. According to one study, residual pulmonary obstruction at 6 months after the first episode of pulmonary embolism was shown to be an independent predictor of recurrent venous thromboembolism and/or chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension 28.
Differential diagnosis
misidentification of pulmonary veins for arteries
arterial bifurcations (or branch points) can mimic PE but usually easily distinguished on multiplanar assessment
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artifact may cause pseudo-filling defects and can be caused by:
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hyperconcentrated contrast in the superior vena cava
medical devices e.g. catheters, orthopaedic prostheses
patient's arms in a down position
transient contrast bolus interruption 16, due to Valsalva or a patent foramen ovale, causing non-opacified blood to enter the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries (scanning in end-expiration can reduce or eliminate this artifact)
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chronic emboli may be mistaken for acute emboli
or vice-versa
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thromboembolic emboli may be mistaken for other embolised material
or vice-versa
History and etymology
The term “pulmonary embolism” was first used by Virchow in 1856, who described the triad of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), venous stasis, and hypercoagulability as the primary cause of PE. The term “pulmonary embolus” refers to the individual clot or clumps of clots that obstruct the pulmonary arteries.
See also
-<p><strong>Pulmonary embolism</strong> (PE) occurs when blood-borne material lodges in one or more pulmonary arteries. Venous thromboembolism is the most frequent cause. Major occlusions can cause acute haemodynamic collapse and sudden death.</p><h4>Epidemiology</h4><p>PE is a common medical emergency, with a reported incidence of between 60 and 300 cases per 100,000 population per year. The incidence of PE increases with age and is higher in males compared to females. Other risk factors for PE include immobility, obesity, cancer, hormonal therapy, and surgery.</p><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>The clinical presentation of PE can vary depending on the size, location, and number of clots, as well as the patient's overall health status. Common symptoms of PE include chest pain, shortness of breath, cough, and rapid or irregular heartbeat. In some cases, PE may be asymptomatic, and the condition may only be detected through imaging studies performed for other reasons.</p><p>The patient may report a history of recent immobilisation or surgery, active malignancy, hormone usage, or a previous episode of thromboembolism. The physical exam may reveal suggestive features such as:</p><ul>- +<p><strong>Pulmonary embolism</strong> (PE) occurs when blood-borne material lodges in one or more pulmonary arteries. Venous thromboembolism is the most frequent cause. Major occlusions can cause acute haemodynamic collapse and sudden death.</p><h4>Epidemiology</h4><p>The reported incidence of PE depends on diagnostic capability. Following the introduction of CT in the 1970s the reported incidence increased twofold and the mortality rate halved. Current figures in the USA indicate an annual rate of 1:1,000.</p><p>PE is a common cause of death in hospital patients. Risk factors include immobility, spinal or lower limb surgery, older age and cancer.</p><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>The clinical presentation of PE can vary depending on the size, location, and number of clots, as well as the patient's overall health status. Common symptoms of PE include chest pain, shortness of breath, cough, and rapid or irregular heartbeat. In some cases, PE may be asymptomatic, and the condition may only be detected through imaging studies performed for other reasons.</p><p>The patient may report a history of recent immobilisation or surgery, active malignancy, hormone usage, or a previous episode of thromboembolism. The physical exam may reveal suggestive features such as:</p><ul>
-</ul><h4>Pathology</h4><h5>Pathophysiology</h5><p>PE occurs when a blood clot, usually originating from the deep veins of the legs, travels to the lungs and becomes lodged in the pulmonary artery. This results in decreased blood flow and oxygen supply to the affected lung and can lead to hypoxaemia, right ventricular strain, and, in severe cases, shock and death.</p><p><strong>Gross anatomical pathology</strong></p><p>Gross anatomical pathology in pulmonary emboli (PE) is characterised by a sudden blockage of the pulmonary arterial circulation, resulting in a lack of oxygen to the affected lung parenchyma. This obstruction causes ischaemia, which can lead to infarction of the affected lung tissue. The consequences of this increased elevated pulmonary arterial pressure include cor pulmonale and pulmonary hypertension (PHT), both of which can result from blockage and vasospasm. This obstruction can also lead to neurogenic release of thrombotic, A2, and serotonin, which can contribute to further thrombus formation. </p><p><a href="/articles/virchow-triad" title="Virchow's triad">Virchow's triad</a> (endothelial injury, stasis, and hypercoagulable states) plays a crucial role in the development of PE, with a large number of DVTs causing PE, with only 10% or less originating in the pulmonary veins themselves. The ischaemia of the downstream parenchyma, as a result of the PE, can also cause a wide range of clinical manifestations and lead to significant morbidity and mortality.</p><h5>Risk factors</h5><p>The following are the risk factors for PE:</p><ol>- +</ul><h4>Pathology</h4><h5>Pathophysiology</h5><p>PE occurs when a blood clot, usually originating from the deep veins of the legs, travels to the lungs and becomes lodged in the pulmonary artery. This results in decreased blood flow and oxygen supply to the affected lung and can lead to hypoxaemia, right ventricular strain, and, in severe cases, shock and death.</p><p><strong>Gross anatomical pathology</strong></p><p>Gross anatomical pathology in pulmonary emboli (PE) is characterised by a sudden blockage of the pulmonary arterial circulation, resulting in a lack of oxygen to the affected lung parenchyma. This obstruction causes ischaemia, which can lead to infarction of the affected lung tissue. The consequences of this increased elevated pulmonary arterial pressure include cor pulmonale and pulmonary hypertension (PHT), both of which can result from blockage and vasospasm. This obstruction can also lead to neurogenic release of thrombotic, A2, and serotonin, which can contribute to further thrombus formation.</p><p><a href="/articles/virchow-triad" title="Virchow's triad">Virchow's triad</a> (endothelial injury, stasis, and hypercoagulable states) plays a crucial role in the development of PE, with a large number of DVTs causing PE, with only 10% or less originating in the pulmonary veins themselves. The ischaemia of the downstream parenchyma, as a result of the PE, can also cause a wide range of clinical manifestations and lead to significant morbidity and mortality.</p><h5>Risk factors</h5><p>The following are the risk factors for PE:</p><ol>