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Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and continuously improved upon by countless contributing members. Our dedicated editors oversee each edit for accuracy and style. Find out more about articles.

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Lateral humeral condyle fracture

Lateral humeral condyle fractures also referred to simply as lateral condyle fractures (in the appropriate context), are relatively common elbow fractures that predominantly occur in children. They may be subtle but are hugely important to diagnose promptly because if they are missed, they tend ...

Effman Classification of urethral duplication

The Effman classification is a widely used system classifying several distinct types of urethral duplication. Usage The Effman classification is the most commonly used 3, which is considered the most complete classification from a clinical and functional point of view 4, but it is only based ...

Classification system for midline abnormalities of the brain and skull

Classification systems for midline abnormalities of the brain and skull are varied and constantly changing as the underlying embryology and genetics are uncovered. Classification A relatively simple and robust classification system is based on the location of abnormalities, proposed by Nuñez ...

Classification system for malformations of the cerebellum

Classification systems for malformations of the cerebellum are varied and are constantly being revised as a greater understanding of the underlying genetics and embryology of the disorders is uncovered. Classification A classification proposed by Barkovich et al. in 2009 1 divides cerebellar ...

Germinal matrix hemorrhage (grading)

Grading of germinal matrix hemorrhage has taken several forms over the years. The most commonly used system is the sonographic grading system proposed by Burstein, Papile, et al. Classification grade I restricted to subependymal region/germinal matrix which is seen in the caudothalamic groov...

Salter-Harris type II fracture

Salter-Harris type II fractures are the most common type of physeal fractures that occur in children. There is a fracture that extends through the physis and into a portion of the metaphysis. A triangular metaphyseal fragment, otherwise known as the Thurston Holland fragment, will be left intact...

Grades of periventricular leukomalacia

One of the methods used for grading periventricular leukomalacia on sonographic appearance is as follows 1: grade 1: areas of increased periventricular echogenicity without any cyst formation persisting for more than 7 days grade 2: the echogenicity has developed into small periventricular cys...

Slipped upper femoral epiphysis - grading

Grading of SUFE (slipped upper femoral epiphysis) can be made on both AP and true lateral projections. On an AP radiograph a line along the superior margin of the femoral neck (line of Klein) should intersect the lateral corner of the epiphysis. Slip is graded based on the displacement of the...

Osteogenesis imperfecta classification

Several forms of osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) have been classified, representing a wide variation in appearance and severity, and clinical features vary widely not only between types but within types. Classification Osteogenesis imperfecta was initially classified by type according to a scheme...

Salter-Harris classification

The Salter-Harris classification was proposed by Salter and Harris in 1963 1 and, at the time of writing (January 2023) remains the most widely used system for describing physeal fractures. Classification Conveniently the Salter-Harris types can be remembered by the mnemonic SALTR. type I s...

Supracondylar humeral fracture

Supracondylar humeral fractures, often simply referred to as supracondylar fractures, are a classic pediatric injury which requires vigilance as imaging findings can be subtle. Epidemiology Simple supracondylar fractures are typically seen in younger children, and are uncommon in adults; 90% a...

Gastro-esophageal reflux grading

Gastro-oesophagal reflux grading is based on the vertical height that contrast-media reaches during fluoroscopy 1: grade I: reflux in the distal esophagus grade II: reflux up to or just above the carina grade III: reflux into cervical esophagus grade IV: reflux in the cervical esophagus with...

Callen MS-ADEM criteria

The Callen MS-ADEM criteria can be useful in differentiating between acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) and multiple sclerosis (MS) in children, as the first attack of immune-mediated demyelination is a frequent diagnostic challenge. Usage The Callen MS-ADEM criteria compare well agai...

Langenskiold classification of Blount disease

The Langenskiold Classification of Blount disease uses age and severity of deformity as grading parameters 1. Classification Six stage radiographic classification of infantile tibia vara, which is based on changes observed as the child matured: stage I: 2-3 years irregularity of metaphyseal ...

AO Spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries

The AO Spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries is a commonly used thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification system 1,2. The current AO Spine system (2013) supercedes the more complex and less reproducible AO Magerl classification 3. Unlike the other widely used system, the thoracolumb...

Apgar score

The Apgar score is a standardized assessment of newborn wellbeing. The score can be calculated by using the scoring's eponymous name as a mnemonic for remembering the 5 factors: each is graded as 0, 1 or 2 with a total possible score of 10. The lower the score the worse the prognosis. Usage Th...

Triplane fracture

Triplane or triplanar fractures are of the distal tibia only occurring in adolescents. As the physiological closure of the physeal plate begins medially, the lateral (open) physis is prone to this type of fracture. Most authors regard it as a type 4 Salter-Harris fracture. It comprises of: a ...

Tillaux fracture

Tillaux fractures are Salter-Harris III fractures through the anterolateral aspect of the distal tibial epiphysis, with variable amounts of displacement. Epidemiology It occurs in older children and adolescents when the medial aspect of the distal tibial growth plate has started to fuse. Path...

Graf method for ultrasound classification of developmental dysplasia of the hip

The Graf method for ultrasound classification system for developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) in infants describes both alpha and beta angles. As a general rule, the alpha angle determines the type, and the beta angle determines the subtype. The angle is formed by the acetabular roof to the...

Pediatric mediastinal masses

Pediatric mediastinal masses are the most common chest masses in children, with the anterior mediastinum being the most common site 1. As in adults, mediastinal masses are classified depending on anatomical sites: anterior mediastinal masses middle mediastinal masses posterior mediastinal ma...

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