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Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and continuously improved upon by countless contributing members. Our dedicated editors oversee each edit for accuracy and style. Find out more about articles.

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Liponecrosis in breast

Liponecrosis in breast refers to areas of mammary fat necrosis with associated dystrophic calcification. It is further divided into: liponecrosis microcystica calcificans: <3 mm liponecrosis macrocystica calcificans: >3 mm Radiographic features Mammography Mammographic features are radioluc...

Large rod like breast calcification

Large rod like calcifications are benign calcifications seen within ectatic ducts. Pathology Associations plasma cell mastitis Radiographic features >1 mm in diameter may have lucent centers (if calcium is only in walls of ducts) branching pattern may be seen radiation towards the nipple...

Halo sign (breast)

Halo sign in mammography refers to a radiolucent rim (halo) around a lesion and is generally but not always indicative of a benign breast lesion. Exceptions include intracystic carcinoma, papillary carcinoma, and carcinoma arising within a fibroadenoma. See also halo sign (chest) halo sign (u...

Gestational and secretory hyperplasia

Gestational and secretory hyperplasia are pregnancy and lactation related physiological changes occurring in breast tissues. Pathology The normal physiology of pregnancy causes a lobular enlargement of terminal duct lobular units along with formation of new ones during the second month of gest...

Tuberculous mastitis

Tuberculous mastitis is often considered a form of granulomatous mastitis secondary to Mycobacterium tuberculous infection of the breast. Some authors however reserve the term granulomatous mastitis to idiopathic granulomatous mastitis. Tuberculous mastitis can mimic many other pathologies in ...

Breast curriculum

The breast curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent core breast knowledge. Definitions Topics pertaining to the breast. Anatomy An understanding of the anatomy of relevant structures is essential. Core anatomical topics include: du...

Breast venous malformation

Breast venous malformations (also known as breast hemangiomas) are benign vascular lesions occurring within breast tissue. Most breast venous malformations are so called cavernous malformations, which are found throughout the body. For a general discussion please refer to the general article on...

Steatocystoma multiplex of the breast

Steatocystoma multiplex is a rare familial hamartomatous malformation that is characterized by the presence of multiple intradermal cysts, and can result in abnormal breast examinations. Epidemiology They usually appear during adolescence and progress with age. Clinical presentation The dis...

Tabar 5-tier grading system

The Tabar 5-tier grading system is used to classify mammographic lesions. This should not be confused with the Tabar classification of parenchymal patterns in breast imaging. It is a separate but translatable system to the BI-RADS classification system (please note that Tabar grade 3 ≠ BI-RADS 3...

Frontal oblique approach mammography

Background Mammographic technique is very important to obtain diagnostic mammograms, to reduce the number of false negatives and to increase the sensitivity of the procedure. As widely noted in literature, most breast pathology occurs in the upper outer quadrant and is very important that this ...

Tucked CC views

In the standard CC views posterior tissue may be excluded from the field of view, due to the anatomical attachment to the chest wall restricting mobility of breast tissues. The tucks CC views are useful to depict lesions deep in the posterior portion of the breast, located between 10 and 2 o'clo...

Transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap

Transplantation of a transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap is a commonly used surgical procedure for breast reconstruction following mastectomy. An autologous myocutaneous flap consisting of abdominal skin, subcutaneous fat, the rectus abdominis muscle, and adjoining vasculature ...

Columnar alteration with prominent apical snouts and secretions

Columnar alteration with prominent apical snouts and secretions (CAPSS) is a pathological entity encountered when breast biopsies are done for investigation of punctate or amorphous calcifications. CAPSS involves the terminal ductal and lobular units (TDLU's). It is sometimes classified under t...

Spence tail

Spence tail is the prolongation of upper outer quadrant of the breast in the axillary direction. It is also called the axillary tail, once it passes through the foramen of Langer, it pierces the axillary fascia. The duct system is seen to extend into the axilla. If this direct continuity with t...

Suspensory ligament of the axilla

The suspensory ligament of the axilla is the inferior extension of the clavipectoral fascia on each side of the thorax. Gross anatomy The suspensory ligament of the axilla originates from the inferior border of pectoralis minor, where the 'leaflets' of the clavipectoral fascia have fused again...

Pseudocalcifications in the breast

Pseudocalcifications and artifacts in the breast include gold deposits in lymph nodes from intramuscular gold therapy for rheumatoid arthritis adhesive tape deodorant film-screen artifacts They should be differentiated from parenchymal calcification. Precautions to be taken are t...

Mammary fat

The mammary glands develop in close association with a depot of adipose tissue that is commonly referred to as the mammary fat pad. The mammary fat pad is a matrix of adipose and connective tissue capable of mediating hormone action and synthesizing an array of growth regulatory molecules.

Cystic breast mass

A cystic breast mass is a mass that contains both solid and fluid components. This can occur from both benign and malignant causes. Benign complex breast hematoma complex breast abscess breast cyst with associated inflammation and hemorrhage galactocoele fibrocystic changes and oil cysts 2...

Cystic hyperplasia of the breast

Cystic hyperplasia of the breast is a benign breast condition which is considered part of fibrocystic changes. Pathology There is usually greater unfolding and enlargement of ductules with formation of microcysts. Radiographic features Mammography If associated with secretion of calcium s...

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